Ener26700 Vol. 25 No. 1 (2026)

Vol. 25, No. 1 (2026), Ener26700 https://doi.org/10.24275/rmiq/Ener26700

A geochemical diagnostic tool for enhanced oil recovery in a Low Salinity Waterflooding process in carbonates

Authors

J.M. Carmona-Pérez, M.A. Díaz-Viera, E. Serrano-Saldaña, B. Carreón-Calderón, M. Coronado, M.P. Andersson

Abstract

Laboratory-scale brine design to optimize oil recovery in low-salinity waterflood processes is expensive, largely unrepresentative, and time-consuming. This study aimed to develop a fast diagnostic tool by extending the theoretical Bond Product Sum (BPS) mechanism for decision-making on the feasibility of this enhanced oil recovery (EOR) process. An integrated methodology was formulated that combines geochemical equilibrium calculations to estimate BPS values with pore network modeling to predict oil recovery. The tool was validated using spontaneous imbibition experiments performed on Bedford limestone cores with seven brine compositions. The results demonstrated a consistent inverse relationship between BPS and oil recovery. In particular, BPS values decreased from 1.805 x 10^-9mol/m² for formation water to 1.753 x 10^-9mol/m² for seawater, correlating with a 27% reduction in residual oil saturation. This suggests that the electrostatic attraction at the interface is weakened with optimized brines, leading to improved recoveries. We conclude that this BPS-based diagnostic tool offers a more efficient and reliable alternative to traditional experiments for designing optimal brine compositions in carbonate reservoirs.

Keywords

Low Salinity Waterflooding, Geochemical Modeling, Bond Product Sum, Carbonate Reservoirs, Enhanced Oil Recovery, Pore Network Modeling.

References
Alghamdi, A. O., Abdulaziz, K., Alotaibi, M. B., Aramco, S., and Yousef, A. A. (2017). Interaction of ionic species with calcite and oil components in waterflooding-theoretical study. The National IOR Centre of Norway, pages 24–27. Almasiyan, P. and Mahani, H. (2024). A bond-product-sum (bps) approach for modeling wettability alteration and enhanced oil recovery by engineered salinity waterflooding in carbonate rocks. Energy and Fuels, 38:5007–5021. Alvarado, V., Bidhendi, M., Garcia-Olvera, G., Morin, B., and Oakey, J. S. (2014). Spe-169127-ms interfacial visco-elasticity of crude oil-brine: An alternative eor mechanism in smart waterflooding. SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium., pages 12–16. Austad, T., Shariatpanahi, S. F., Strand, S., Black, C. J., and Webb, K. J. (2012). Conditions for a lowsalinity enhanced oil recovery (eor) effect in carbonate oil reservoirs. Energy and Fuels, 26:569–575. Awolayo, A., Sarma, H., and AlSumaiti, A. M. (2014). A laboratory study of ionic effect of smart water for enhancing oil recovery in carbonate reservoirs. In SPE EOR Conference at Oil and Gas West Asia, pages SPE–169662–MS, Muscat, Oman. Society of Petroleum Engineers. Brady, P. V. (2011). Why oil sticks to limestone. Technical report, Sandia National Laboratories. Brady, P. V., Bryan, C. R., Thyne, G., and Li, H. (2016). Altering wettability to recover more oil from tight formations. Journal of Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources, 15:79–83. Brady, P. V. and Krumhansl, J. L. (2012). A surface complexation model of oil-brine-sandstone interfaces at 100°c: Low salinity waterflooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 81:171–176. Brady, P. V. and Krumhansl, J. L. (2013). Surface complexation modeling for waterflooding of sandstones. SPE Journal, 18:214–218. Brady, P. V., Krumhansl, J. L., and Mariner, P. E. (2012). Surface complexation modeling for improved oil recovery. Proceedings - SPE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, 1:376–385. Brady, P. V. and Thyne, G. (2016). Functional wettability in carbonate reservoirs. Energy and Fuels, 30:9217–9225. Buckley, J. S., Liu, Y., and Monsterleet, S. (1998). Mechanisms of wetting alteration by crude oils. SPE Journal, 3:54–61. Carreón, B., V., C., Juan, U.-V., and Aguayo, P. (2021). Petroleum Engineering Thermophysical Properties of Heavy Petroleum Fluids. Chandrasekhar, S. and Mohanty, K. K. (2013). Spe 166280 wettability alteration with brine composition in high temperature carbonate reservoirs. SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition. Chen, Y., Xie, Q., Sari, A., Brady, P. V., and Saeedi, A. (2018). Oil/water/rock wettability: Influencing factors and implications for low salinity water flooding in carbonate reservoirs. Fuel, 215:171–177. Dang, C. T. Q. (2013). State-of-the art low salinity waterflooding for enhanced oil recovery. SPE Asia Pacific Oil, Gas Conference and Exhibition, pages 1–12. 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Theoretical prediction of the thermodynamic behavior of aqueous electrolytes at high pressures and temperatures: II. Debye-Huckel parameters for activity coefficients and relative partial molal properties. American Journal of Science, 274(10):1199–1261. Johnson, J.W., Oelkers, E. H., and Helgeson, H. C. (1992). SUPCRT92: A software package for calculating the standard molal thermodynamic properties of minerals, gases, aqueous species, and reactions from 1 to 5000 bar and 0 to 1000 c. Computers & Geosciences, 18(7):899–947. Korrani, A. K. N., Fu,W., Sanaei, A., and Sepehrnoori, K. (2015). Mechanistic modeling of modified salinity waterflooding in carbonate reservoirs. Proceedings - SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 2015-Janua:5475–5495. Kwak, H. T., Yousef, A. A., Al-Saleh, S., and Aramco, S. (2014). Spe-169112-ms new insights on the role of multivalent ions in water-carbonate rock interactions. Lager, A., Webb, K., Black, C., Singleton, M., and Sorbie, K. (2006). Low salinity oil recovery-an experimental investigation. International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, pages 1–13. Lashkarbolooki, M., Ayatollahi, S., and Riazi, M. (2014). Effect of salinity, resin, and asphaltene on the surface properties of acidic crude oil/smart water/rock system. Energy and Fuels, 28:6820–6829. Leal, A. (2015). Reaktoro: An open-source unified framework for modeling chemically reactive systems. Leal, A. M., Blunt, M. J., and LaForce, T. C. (2013). A robust and efficient numerical method for multiphase equilibrium calculations: Application to CO2-brine-rock systems at high temperatures, pressures and salinities. Advances in Water Resources, 62:409–430. Leal, A. M., Blunt, M. J., and LaForce, T. C. (2014). Efficient chemical equilibrium calculations for geochemical speciation and reactive transport modelling. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 131:301–322. Leal, A. M., Kulik, D. A., Kosakowski, G., and Saar, M. O. (2016). Computational methods for reactive transport modeling: An extended law of mass-action, xlma, method for multiphase equilibrium calculations. Advances in Water Resources, 96:405–422. Ligthelm, D. J., Gronsveld, J., Hofman, J. P., Brussee, N. J., Marcelis, F., and Linde, H. A. V. D. (2009). Spe119835 novel waterflooding strategy by manipulation of injection brine composition. EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition, pages 1–22. Mahani, H., Keya, A. L., and Berg, S. (2015). Driving mechanism of low salinity flooding in carbonate rocks. pages 1–27. Mahani, H., Keya, A. L., Berg, S., and Nasralla, R. (2016). Electrokinetics of carbonate/brine interface in low-salinity waterflooding: Effect of brine salinity, composition, rock type, and ph on ζ-potential and a surface-complexation model. SPE Journal, (SPE-181745-PA). Mahani, H., Menezes, R., Berg, S., Fadili, A., Nasralla, R., Voskov, D., and Joekar-Niasar, V. (2017). Insights into the impact of temperature on the wettability alteration by low salinity in carbonate rocks. Energy and Fuels, 31:7839–7853. McPhee, C., Reed, J., and Zubizarreta, I. (2015). Core Analysis: A Best Practice Guide, volume 64 of Developments in Petroleum Science. Elsevier, 1 edition. McWhorter, D. B. and Sunada, D. K. (1990). Exact integral solutions for two-phase flow. Water Resources Research, 26(3):399–413. Morse, J. W., Arvidson, R. S., and Morse, J. W. (2002). The dissolution kinetics of major sedimentary carbonate minerals. Earth-Science Reviews, 58:51–84. Mwangi, P., Brady, P. V., Radonjic, M., and Thyne, G. (2018). The effect of organic acids on wettability of sandstone and carbonate rocks. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 165:428–435. Olivares-Xometl, O., Arellanes-Lozada, P., Lijanova, I. V., Azotla-Cruz, L., and Likhanova, N. V. (2024). Preformed oil-in-water macroemulsions for oil recovery. Revista Mexicana de Ingeniería Química, 23(3):IE24252. Article ID: IE24252. Omekeh, A., Friis, A., Fjelde, I., and Evje, S. (2012). Modeling of ion-exchange and solubility in low salinity water flooding. SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, pages 1–13. Ouden, L. (2014). Calcite dissolution behaviour during low salinity water flooding in carbonate rock. Master’s thesis, Delft University of Technology. Parkhurst, D. L. and Appelo, C. A. J. (2013). PHREEQC version 3. Qiao, C., Johns, R., and Li, L. (2016a). Modeling low-salinity waterflooding in chalk and limestone reservoirs. Energy and Fuels, 30:884–895. Qiao, C., Li, L., Johns, R. T., and Xu, J. (2015). A mechanistic model forwettability alteration by chemically tuned waterflooding in carbonate reservoirs. SPE Journal, 20:767–783. Qiao, C., Li, L., Johns, R. T., and Xu, J. (2016b). Compositional modeling of dissolution-induced injectivity alteration during co2 flooding in carbonate reservoirs. SPE Journal, 21:809–826. Rahevar, S., Kakati, A., Kumar, G., Sangwai, J., Myers, M., and Al-Yaseri, A. (2023). Controlled salinity water flooding and zeta potential: Insight into a novel enhanced oil recovery mechanism. Energy Reports, 9:2557–2565. Reinoso, B. S., Mohanty, K. K., and Panda, M. (2024). Synergistic impact of low salinity and surfactant on wettability alteration in carbonates. SPE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, 2024-April. Sakuma, H., Andersson, M., Bechgaard, K., and Stipp, S. (2014). Surface tension alteration on calcite, induced by ion substitution. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 118:3078–3087. Sanaei, A., Tavassoli, S., and Sepehrmoori, K. (2019). Investigation of modified water chemistry for improved oil recovery: Application of DLVO theory and surface complexation model. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 574:131–145. Serrano-Saldaña, E. (2018). Resultados de pruebas de imbibición espontánea en muestras de caliza. Technical Report D.61057, Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo. Tanger, J. C. and Helgeson, H. C. (1988). Calculation of the thermodynamic and transport properties of aqueous species at high pressures and temperatures; revised equations of state for the standard partial molal properties of ions and electrolytes. American Journal of Science, 288(1):19–98. Tetteh, J. T. and Barati, R. (2019). Crude-oil/brine interaction as a recovery mechanism for low-salinity waterflooding of carbonate reservoirs. SPE Reservoir Evaluation and Engineering, 22:877–896. Tetteh, J. T., Brady, P. V., and Ghahfarokhi, R. B. (2021). Impact of temperature and so42- on electrostatic controls over carbonate wettability. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 625:1–32. Wei, B., Lu, L., Li, Q., Li, H., and Ning, X. (2017). Mechanistic study of oil/brine/solid interfacial behaviors during low-salinity water flooding using visual and quantitative methods. Energy Fuels, 31:6615–6624. Xie, Q., Brady, P. V., Pooryousefy, E., Zhou, D., Liu, Y., and Saeedi, A. (2017). The low salinity effect at high temperatures. Fuel, 200:419–426. Xie, Q., Sari, A., Pu, W., Chen, Y., Brady, P. V., Maskari, N. A., and Saeedi, A. (2018). ph effect on wettability of oil/brine/carbonate system: Implications for low salinity water flooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 168:419–425. Yousef, A. A., Al-Saleh, S., Al-Kaabi, A., and Al-Jawfi, M. (2011). Laboratory investigation of the impact of injection-water salinity and ionic content on oil recovery from carbonate reservoirs. SPE Reservoir Evaluation and Engineering, 14:578–593. Yu, L., Evje, S., Kleppe, H., Karstad, T., Fjelde, I., and Skjaeveland, S. M. (2009). Spontaneous imbibition of seawater into preferentially oil-wet chalk cores - experiments and simulations. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 66:171–179. Zaeri, M. R., Hashemi, R., Shahverdi, H., and Sadeghi, M. (2018). Enhanced oil recovery from carbonate reservoirs by spontaneous imbibition of low salinity water. Petroleum Science, 15:564–576. Zhang, P., Tweheyo, M. T., and Austad, T. (2007). Wettability alteration and improved oil recovery by spontaneous imbibition of seawater into chalk: Impact of the potential determining ions Ca2+, Mg2+, and SO42-. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 301:199–208.

References

Alghamdi, A. O., Abdulaziz, K., Alotaibi, M. B., Aramco, S., and Yousef, A. A. (2017). Interaction of ionic species with calcite and oil components in waterflooding-theoretical study. The National IOR Centre of Norway, pages 24–27.
Almasiyan, P. and Mahani, H. (2024). A bond-product-sum (bps) approach for modeling wettability alteration and enhanced oil recovery by engineered salinity waterflooding in carbonate rocks. Energy and Fuels, 38:5007–5021.
Alvarado, V., Bidhendi, M., Garcia-Olvera, G., Morin, B., and Oakey, J. S. (2014). Spe-169127-ms interfacial visco-elasticity of crude oil-brine: An alternative eor mechanism in smart waterflooding. SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium., pages 12–16.
Austad, T., Shariatpanahi, S. F., Strand, S., Black, C. J., and Webb, K. J. (2012). Conditions for a lowsalinity enhanced oil recovery (eor) effect in carbonate oil reservoirs. Energy and Fuels, 26:569–575.
Awolayo, A., Sarma, H., and AlSumaiti, A. M. (2014). A laboratory study of ionic effect of smart water for enhancing oil recovery in carbonate reservoirs. In SPE EOR Conference at Oil and Gas West Asia, pages SPE–169662–MS, Muscat, Oman. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Brady, P. V. (2011). Why oil sticks to limestone. Technical report, Sandia National Laboratories.
Brady, P. V., Bryan, C. R., Thyne, G., and Li, H. (2016). Altering wettability to recover more oil from tight formations. Journal of Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources, 15:79–83.
Brady, P. V. and Krumhansl, J. L. (2012). A surface complexation model of oil-brine-sandstone interfaces at 100°c: Low salinity waterflooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 81:171–176.
Brady, P. V. and Krumhansl, J. L. (2013). Surface complexation modeling for waterflooding of sandstones. SPE Journal, 18:214–218.
Brady, P. V., Krumhansl, J. L., and Mariner, P. E. (2012). Surface complexation modeling for improved oil recovery. Proceedings - SPE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, 1:376–385.
Brady, P. V. and Thyne, G. (2016). Functional wettability in carbonate reservoirs. Energy and Fuels, 30:9217–9225.
Buckley, J. S., Liu, Y., and Monsterleet, S. (1998). Mechanisms of wetting alteration by crude oils. SPE Journal, 3:54–61.
Carreón, B., V., C., Juan, U.-V., and Aguayo, P. (2021). Petroleum Engineering Thermophysical Properties of Heavy Petroleum Fluids.
Chandrasekhar, S. and Mohanty, K. K. (2013). Spe 166280 wettability alteration with brine composition in high temperature carbonate reservoirs. SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition.
Chen, Y., Xie, Q., Sari, A., Brady, P. V., and Saeedi, A. (2018). Oil/water/rock wettability: Influencing factors and implications for low salinity water flooding in carbonate reservoirs. Fuel, 215:171–177.
Dang, C. T. Q. (2013). State-of-the art low salinity waterflooding for enhanced oil recovery. SPE Asia Pacific Oil, Gas Conference and Exhibition, pages 1–12.
Deng, X., Tariq, Z., Murtaza, M., Patil, S., Mahmoud, M., and Kamal, M. S. (2021). Relative contribution of wettability alteration and interfacial tension reduction in eor: A critical review. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 325:1–18.
Derkani, M. H., Fletcher, A. J., Abdallah,W., Sauerer, B., Anderson, J., and Zhang, Z. J. (2018). Low salinity waterflooding in carbonate reservoirs: Review of interfacial mechanisms. Colloids and Interfaces, 2.
Erzuah, S., Fjelde, I., and Omekeh, A. V. (2017). Wettability estimation by surface complexation simulations. SPE Europee featured at 79th EAGE Conference and Exhibition. SPE-185767-MS.
Gachuz-Muro, H. (2013). Effects of brine on crude oil viscosity at different temperature and brine composition-heavy oil/water interaction. SPE Europec, pages 1–13.
Gachuz-Muro, H. and Sohrabi, M. (2014). Smart water injection for heavy oil recovery from naturally fractured reservoirs. Society of Petroleum Engineers, pages 857–876.
Gachuz-Muro, H. and Sohrabi, M. (2017). Prediction, control and validation of rock dissolution during smart water injection and its impact on waterflood performance in heavy oil carbonate reservoirs.
Generosi, J., Ceccato, M., Andersson, M., Hassenkam, T., DobberschÅN utz, S., Bovet, N., and Stipp, S. (2016). Calcite wettability in the presence of dissolved mg2+ and so42-. Energy and Fuels, 31.
Gostick, J., Aghighi, M., Hinebaugh, J., Tranter, T., Hoeh, M., Day, H., Spellacy, B., Sharqawy, M., Bazylak, A., Burns, A., and Lehnert, W. (2016a). Openpnm: a pore network modeling package. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCSE.2016.49 . Computing in Science and Engineering, 18(4):60–74.
Gostick, J., Aghighi, M., Hinebaugh, J., Tranter, T. G., Hoeh, M. A., Day, H., Spellacy, B., Sharqawy, M. H., Bazylak, A., Burns, A., Lehnert, W., and Putz, A. (2016b). OpenPNM: A pore network modeling package. Computing in Science & Engineering, 18(4):60–74.
Helgeson, H. C. and Kirkham, D. H. (1974). Theoretical prediction of the thermodynamic behavior of aqueous electrolytes at high pressures and temperatures: II. Debye-Huckel parameters for activity coefficients and relative partial molal properties. American Journal of Science, 274(10):1199–1261.
Johnson, J.W., Oelkers, E. H., and Helgeson, H. C. (1992). SUPCRT92: A software package for calculating the standard molal thermodynamic properties of minerals, gases, aqueous species, and reactions from 1 to 5000 bar and 0 to 1000 c. Computers & Geosciences, 18(7):899–947.
Korrani, A. K. N., Fu,W., Sanaei, A., and Sepehrnoori, K. (2015). Mechanistic modeling of modified salinity waterflooding in carbonate reservoirs. Proceedings - SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 2015-Janua:5475–5495.
Kwak, H. T., Yousef, A. A., Al-Saleh, S., and Aramco, S. (2014). Spe-169112-ms new insights on the role of multivalent ions in water-carbonate rock interactions. Lager, A., Webb, K., Black, C., Singleton, M., and Sorbie, K. (2006). Low salinity oil recovery-an experimental investigation. International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, pages 1–13.
Lashkarbolooki, M., Ayatollahi, S., and Riazi, M. (2014). Effect of salinity, resin, and asphaltene on the surface properties of acidic crude oil/smart water/rock system. Energy and Fuels, 28:6820–6829.
Leal, A. (2015). Reaktoro: An open-source unified framework for modeling chemically reactive systems.
Leal, A. M., Blunt, M. J., and LaForce, T. C. (2013). A robust and efficient numerical method for multiphase equilibrium calculations: Application to CO2-brine-rock systems at high temperatures, pressures and salinities. Advances in Water Resources, 62:409–430.
Leal, A. M., Blunt, M. J., and LaForce, T. C. (2014). Efficient chemical equilibrium calculations for geochemical speciation and reactive transport modelling. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 131:301–322.
Leal, A. M., Kulik, D. A., Kosakowski, G., and Saar, M. O. (2016). Computational methods for reactive transport modeling: An extended law of mass-action, xlma, method for multiphase equilibrium calculations. Advances in Water Resources, 96:405–422.
Ligthelm, D. J., Gronsveld, J., Hofman, J. P., Brussee, N. J., Marcelis, F., and Linde, H. A. V. D. (2009). Spe119835 novel waterflooding strategy by manipulation of injection brine composition. EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition, pages 1–22.
Mahani, H., Keya, A. L., and Berg, S. (2015). Driving mechanism of low salinity flooding in carbonate rocks. pages 1–27.
Mahani, H., Keya, A. L., Berg, S., and Nasralla, R. (2016). Electrokinetics of carbonate/brine interface in low-salinity waterflooding: Effect of brine salinity, composition, rock type, and ph on ζ-potential and a surface-complexation model. SPE Journal, (SPE-181745-PA).
Mahani, H., Menezes, R., Berg, S., Fadili, A., Nasralla, R., Voskov, D., and Joekar-Niasar, V. (2017). Insights into the impact of temperature on the wettability alteration by low salinity in carbonate rocks. Energy and Fuels, 31:7839–7853.
McPhee, C., Reed, J., and Zubizarreta, I. (2015). Core Analysis: A Best Practice Guide, volume 64 of Developments in Petroleum Science. Elsevier, 1 edition.
McWhorter, D. B. and Sunada, D. K. (1990). Exact integral solutions for two-phase flow. Water Resources Research, 26(3):399–413.
Morse, J. W., Arvidson, R. S., and Morse, J. W. (2002). The dissolution kinetics of major sedimentary carbonate minerals. Earth-Science Reviews, 58:51–84.
Mwangi, P., Brady, P. V., Radonjic, M., and Thyne, G. (2018). The effect of organic acids on wettability of sandstone and carbonate rocks. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 165:428–435.
Olivares-Xometl, O., Arellanes-Lozada, P., Lijanova, I. V., Azotla-Cruz, L., and Likhanova, N. V. (2024). Preformed oil-in-water macroemulsions for oil recovery. Revista Mexicana de Ingeniería Química, 23(3):IE24252. Article ID: IE24252.
Omekeh, A., Friis, A., Fjelde, I., and Evje, S. (2012). Modeling of ion-exchange and solubility in low salinity water flooding. SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, pages 1–13.
Ouden, L. (2014). Calcite dissolution behaviour during low salinity water flooding in carbonate rock. Master’s thesis, Delft University of Technology.
Parkhurst, D. L. and Appelo, C. A. J. (2013). PHREEQC version 3.
Qiao, C., Johns, R., and Li, L. (2016a). Modeling low-salinity waterflooding in chalk and limestone reservoirs. Energy and Fuels, 30:884–895.
Qiao, C., Li, L., Johns, R. T., and Xu, J. (2015). A mechanistic model forwettability alteration by chemically tuned waterflooding in carbonate reservoirs. SPE Journal, 20:767–783.
Qiao, C., Li, L., Johns, R. T., and Xu, J. (2016b). Compositional modeling of dissolution-induced injectivity alteration during co2 flooding in carbonate reservoirs. SPE Journal, 21:809–826.
Rahevar, S., Kakati, A., Kumar, G., Sangwai, J., Myers, M., and Al-Yaseri, A. (2023). Controlled salinity water flooding and zeta potential: Insight into a novel enhanced oil recovery mechanism. Energy Reports, 9:2557–2565.
Reinoso, B. S., Mohanty, K. K., and Panda, M. (2024). Synergistic impact of low salinity and surfactant on wettability alteration in carbonates. SPE Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, 2024-April.
Sakuma, H., Andersson, M., Bechgaard, K., and Stipp, S. (2014). Surface tension alteration on calcite, induced by ion substitution. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 118:3078–3087.
Sanaei, A., Tavassoli, S., and Sepehrmoori, K. (2019). Investigation of modified water chemistry for improved oil recovery: Application of DLVO theory and surface complexation model. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 574:131–145.
Serrano-Saldaña, E. (2018). Resultados de pruebas de imbibición espontánea en muestras de caliza. Technical Report D.61057, Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo.
Tanger, J. C. and Helgeson, H. C. (1988). Calculation of the thermodynamic and transport properties of aqueous species at high pressures and temperatures; revised equations of state for the standard partial molal properties of ions and electrolytes. American Journal of Science, 288(1):19–98.
Tetteh, J. T. and Barati, R. (2019). Crude-oil/brine interaction as a recovery mechanism for low-salinity waterflooding of carbonate reservoirs. SPE Reservoir Evaluation and Engineering, 22:877–896.
Tetteh, J. T., Brady, P. V., and Ghahfarokhi, R. B. (2021). Impact of temperature and so42- on electrostatic controls over carbonate wettability. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 625:1–32.
Wei, B., Lu, L., Li, Q., Li, H., and Ning, X. (2017). Mechanistic study of oil/brine/solid interfacial behaviors during low-salinity water flooding using visual and quantitative methods. Energy Fuels, 31:6615–6624.
Xie, Q., Brady, P. V., Pooryousefy, E., Zhou, D., Liu, Y., and Saeedi, A. (2017). The low salinity effect at high temperatures. Fuel, 200:419–426.
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